Out of the Shadows — African American Women and the Military
By Estella Norwood Evans, DSW, CSW, LMSW, ACSW
Social Work Today
Vol. 6 No. 4 P. 26

More than 30% of military women are African American. What are the implications for this group overrepresented in numbers and underaddressed in services?

Military service has touched many American families. Nearly 26 million Americans living today have served in the military and 12 million of those are over the age of 60 (Segal & Segal, 2004). Today’s active duty military is very different from the military of 40 years ago, when men were subject to the draft and wars required more troops. The all-volunteer military—1.4 million strong—is more educated, more female, more married, and less white than the draft-era military (Segal & Segal, 2004).

According to noted military historian Leisa Meyer, PhD, and military sociologist Brenda Moore, PhD, African American women represent the largest group of minority women serving in the military today and also represent a large number of veterans. The rapidly changing face of the American military has significant implications for African American women who currently serve and have served our country.

Demographic and Historical Perspectives
A review of the literature documents multidisciplinary research addressing both the general topic of African Americans in the military, as well as the specific treatment and experiences of African American women currently serving and those of veteran status (Boyd, 2004; Abel, 2003; Armor, 1996; Meyer, 1996; Stiehm, 1996; Haynes, 1994; & Moore, 1991). In their seminal article discussing core demographic issues regarding the military, Segal and Segal note, “Blacks assumed even greater representation in the military after the draft ended in 1973—a result not intended or expected by the architects of America’s post-Vietnam volunteer army. The relative number of Black enlistees was especially high among ground combat forces in the Army and Marine Corps. Black men (and increasingly, Black women) perceived the military to be a more racially fair employer than the civilian labor force, and indeed the volunteer force would not have met its manpower goals without the increased representation of Blacks” (2004).

Several researchers make specific reference, for example, to the extensive contributions of legendary African American females such as Harriet Tubman, who served as a Union spy, an unpaid soldier, and a freedom fighter; and Susan King Taylor, who became famous for her volunteer service as a nurse and launderer as she traveled with her husband’s unit, the 33rd United States Colored Troops (Brown, 2005; Moore, 1991). This history of service by African American women continued during World Wars I and II, the Korean conflict, Vietnam, and Operation Desert Storm.

In his discussion of race and gender in the U.S. military, George Mason University professor David J. Armor aptly points out that periodically, the demographic and social composition of the United States becomes a national issue: “At times, the issue is over access to military service by some group, such as the recent controversy over opening military service to homosexuals. More commonly, the question of representation is one of degree rather than access. The most controversial issues with respect to the degree of representation have been the proportions of Blacks and women in the military. The issue of Black representation flared up during the Persian Gulf War, and the question of women’s representation was in the news again as a result of major Congressional initiatives to eliminate combat restrictions for women” (Armor, D. J., 1996).

Overrepresentation
An important and consistent theme in the literature worth noting is the identified overrepresentation of African American women in the military in relation to their presence in the general population. In describing their extensive 2002 demographic data on military personnel, Segal and Segal report that black women had a higher representation than black men: “Sixteen percent of female officers and 34% of enlisted women are Black compared with 9% of male officers and 20% of enlisted men. The Army has the highest percentage of black women: Nearly one fourth of women officers and close to one-half of enlisted women are Black” (2004).

The powerful significance of these data were underscored by the Honorable Corrine Brown (D-FL) in her address to the House of Representatives on the occasion of the 16th Annual Congressional Black Caucus Veterans’ Braintrust: “Of the 35,000 women who went to Desert Storm, an estimated 40% were African Americans. Notably in 2002, African American women were over-represented in the armed services as compared with their proportion in the general population. This is simply to say that, African American women made up 30.8% of all military women while making up only 12% of all civilian.”

According to Moore, in 2002, there were more African American women in the army’s highest enlisted ranks of Sergeant First Class, Master Sergeant, and Sergeant Major than white women. Moore adds that, in addition to serving their terms of service, African American women tend to reenlist more often than their white female counterparts.

Current and Emerging Issues and Concerns
One of the most serious consequences noted by Armor (1996) and other researchers of the overrepresentation of African Americans in the military is the controversial reality that African Americans carry an unfair and disproportionate burden of combat risks.

Meyer believes one of the greatest challenges faced by African American women in the military and veterans is their invisibility. In explaining the differential treatment of the struggles and experiences of females in the military more generally and African American women currently serving and veterans more specifically, Meyer says, “The military tends to mirror society in its treatment of women and ethnic minorities.” She offers the following powerful example of Shoshana Johnson, an African American female soldier held prisoner during the war in Iraq, to support her assertion. “Shoshana Johnson’s story as a prisoner of war in Iraq was dwarfed by the media attention to Private Jessica Lynch. Private Lynch is a young, blonde white woman whose capture and rescue were widely covered by the American media. Her story more aptly fit the picture of military women that seems most comfortable for military [and federal] officials to convey. I do not mean to minimize Private Lynch’s ordeal; however, the disparate treatment of her situation in relation to that of Shoshana Johnson and other women of color killed or imprisoned in the same time makes clear the continuing influence of racial politics and racism not just in how stories are told, but in whose stories are told.”

In addition to the problems of invisibility, marginalization, and the differential treatment of African American female soldiers and veterans, other noteworthy concerns and issues identified in the literature and interviews with experts in the field include the following:

• poverty and low incomes of African American female soldiers, veterans, and their families (Moore notes that the incomes of African American females serving in the military are often so low that their families qualify for food stamps and other public assistance benefits.);

• the inadequacy and sometimes absence of adequate Veterans’ Administration services for African American female military veterans;

• underdiagnosis and misdiagnosis of physical and mental illness, particularly posttraumatic stress disorder;

• frustration with the inadequacy of redress for problems experienced in the military including rape, sexual harassment, and verbal and physical abuse;

• the need for recognition by military officials of the tremendous difficulties African American women have faced in receiving serious attention to and responses addressing the challenges they face as African Americans and women in our nation’s armed services; and

• the need for more empirical data on the specific experiences, problems, issues, and concerns of African American women currently serving in the armed forces as well as African American female veterans.

Federal, state, and local governments; researchers; historians; advocacy groups; policy analysts; and elected officials must give greater priority to issues facing the female African American military population.

Where Do We Go From Here? Current and Future Initiatives
One of the most powerful political and educational groups advocating on behalf of African American women serving in the armed services and veterans is the Congressional Black Caucus Veterans Braintrust, led by Executive Coordinator Ron Armstead. The Veterans’ Braintrust was established in 1988 by Congressman Charles Rangel of New York, a distinguished and decorated Korean War veteran (Brown, 2005). The organization is currently cochaired by Brown and Rep. Sanford Bishop, Jr. (D-GA). This body is composed of representatives of many African American community-based groups, veterans organizations, associations, institutions, and individuals without regard to era, gender, or other affiliation.

According to Armstead, the Veterans’ Braintrust functions as an institutional think-tank and advisory group for the Congressional Black Caucus and for other members of Congress on the critical issues of education, healthcare, mental health, aging, research, employment and training, homelessness and affordable housing, small business development, and veterans’ businesses and services. Braintrust members have developed workshop proposals and presented at state and national conferences such as Blacks in Government; Indiana Black Expo; New Jersey Black Issues Convention; National Association of Black Social Workers; New York State Black, Puerto Rican, and Hispanic Caucus Legislative Weekends; the Annual Conference on the Concerns of Veterans; and the National Medical Association.

The Braintrust has tallied some impressive accomplishments on behalf of African American veterans during its brief existence. For example, in 1994, President Clinton’s decision to participate in a special tribute honoring the 1 million African American men and women in uniform during World War II marked the first-ever appearance of the President at a Braintrust event in the 24-year history of the Congressional Black Caucus Annual Legislative Conference. As a result, the Veterans’ Braintrust was designated as a commemorative community by the Department of Defense for its efforts to recognize the contributions of African Americans during World War II.

On September 10, 2004, the Veterans’ Braintrust, in conjunction with the 2004 Congressional Black Caucus Foundation Legislative Conference, presented an important community forum on the theme, “Honoring African American Veterans.” Meyer, who served as an evaluator for a panel of guest speakers at this forum, recommends that the Braintrust move forward from this initial effort and consider organizing some type of national forum where the issues facing African American women veterans might be highlighted, discussed, and strategies for addressing the challenges suggested. “Such a national forum might take the form of a conference where these issues are addressed through panels and workshops with the latter focused on sharing strategies that have proven effective and creating new possible roads to take,” said Meyer.

Armstead, a Vietnam veteran, a licensed social worker, and an urban planner, agrees with Meyer’s recommendation. He believes the 2006 Conference Theme, “Grappling with Environmental Exposure and Health Disparities: A Dual Dilemma,” will provide a venue to address some of the more macro concerns facing African American veterans in general and African American women serving in the military in particular.

Last but not least is the increased acknowledgement of military issues and concerns within the social work profession. In an article focusing on social work practice with military families, Tori DeAngelis writes: “Military families who remain at home don’t command the same attention as their deployed loved ones who are shown on TV in the thick of battle, fighting Iraqi troops or storming one of Saddam Hussein’s presidential palaces. The strength and cohesiveness of soldier’s families, however, are vital to troops’ success in the field—a secret social workers have known for a long time and that fuels their work during wartime; this is why the Department of Veteran’s Affairs is the single largest employer of social workers in the nation” (2006).

Moore makes the important observation that recently, a larger number of women are being deployed to war zones and that the resultant “trickle-down” effect on their children, spouses, partners, and families are enormous. Similarly, Coser and Mady Segal describe the armed forces as a “greedy institution.” They state, “A social institution is considered ‘greedy’ when it requires great commitment, time, and energy, and seeks to limit participant’s life styles. The military’s distinct lifestyle affects service members and their families—especially their spouses and their children” (Segal & Segal, 2004). Specific characteristics of the “greedy lifestyle” of the military articulated by these authors and relevant to this discussion are:

• risk of injury or death of the service member;

• separations from family;

• frequent geographic relocation;

• residence in foreign countries;

• long and often unpredictable duty hours and shift work;

• pressures to conform; and

• masculine nature of the organization (Segal & Segal, 2004).

Professional social workers provide not only key services and resources to deployed soldiers, but also valuable support, community resources, crisis intervention, grief counseling, and an array of related health and human services to their families left behind.

African American women currently serving in the military and those who are veterans constitute a special group with unique strengths, issues, problems, and concerns. Through the formidable work of social workers, researchers, the Veterans’ Braintrust, dedicated and committed elected officials, military sociologists, military historians, physicians, and other healthcare providers, we have only begun to focus on the specific challenges faced by this group. The need for more empirical data is critical.

As the war on terrorism expands in breadth and depth and the American military presence continues in Iraq and other political hot spots around the world, social workers must continue to provide much-needed services to African American women serving our country, and their spouses, and children. Health and human services are equally needed to assist African American women returning home transition from active duty to civilian status. By building on the multidisciplinary pioneering work already begun, social workers can continue to make substantial contributions to this critical area of professional practice and research.

— Estella Norwood Evans, DSW, CSW, LMSW, ACSW, is a professor of social work at Nazareth College of Rochester, NY.

References
Abel, D. (August 21, 2003). “Battle Continues for Veterans Home From War.” The Boston Globe.

Armor, D. J. (Fall 1996). “Race and Gender in the U.S. Military,” Armed Forces & Society 23, No. 1: 7-27.

Boyd, C. F. (1998/2004). “African-American Military Women: Soaring Beyond the Glass Ceiling.” The Black Collegian. Retrieved April 6, 2006 from http://www.black-collegian.com/issues/1998-03/1998-04/womenmil.shtml

Brown, C. (December 17, 2005). “Speech of Hon. Corrine Brown of Florida in the House of Representatives.” Congressional Record 151, no. 163: 1-3.

Coser, L. A. & Segal, M. W. (December 2004). “The Military Family Lifestyle,” in America’s Military Population, Segal, D. & Segal, M. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau.

DeAngelis, T. (April/May 2006). “Social Workers Help Military Families.” NASW New York State Update 27, no. 6: 1 & 10.

Meyer, L. D. (1996). Creating GI Jane-Sexuality and Power in the Women’s Army Corps During World War II. New York: Columbia University Press.

Moore, B. L. (Spring 1991). “African American Women in the U.S. Military.” Armed Forces & Society, 17, no. 3:363-384.

Segal, D. & Segal, M. (December 2004). America’s Military Population. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau.

Resources
Byrd, V. (March 2004). “Shoshana Johnson’s Story: To Hell and Back.” Essence. Retrieved April 6, 2006 from www.essence.com/essence/print/0,14882,590888,00.html

Haynes, K. A. (March 1994). “Sisters-in-Arms.” Ebony, 49, no. 5:118-120.

King, L. Y. (Autumn 1998). “In Search of Women of African Descent Who Served in the Civil War Union Navy,” The Journal of Negro History, 83, no. 4: 302-309.

Miller, R. (Fall/Winter 1995). “The Golden Fourteen, Plus: Black Navy Women in World War I.” Minerva, 713.

Moffeit, M., & Herdy, A., (January 25, 2004). “Female Veterans Report Rapes in Iraq War.” The Denver Post.

Randolph, L. B. (September 1991). “The Untold Story of Black Women in The Gulf War.” Ebony, 46, no. 11:100.

Stiehm, J. H., ed. (1996). It’s our military too: women and the U.S. military. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.